Chapter 67 Respiratory Physiology: Anatomy & Physiology RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ANATOMY Nose Function: humidifies, warms, filters inspired air; voice resonance chamber; houses olfactory receptors Nasal vibrissae (hairs) coated with mucus → traps large particles (e. This makes the chest cavity bigger and pulls air through Breathing is the physical process of inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide. Figure 22. Each of these organs performs a distinct role in the respiratory system function. A correct answer moves you forward 1 space. The human respiratory system still allows an exchange of large amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide in a short time span, and the circulatory system allows distribution of this oxygen throughout the body. A sheet of muscle called the diaphragm serves other parts of the respiratory system, such as the trachea, or windpipe, and bronchi, conduct air to the lungs. These organs are organised into upperand lower respiratory tracts. In other words, the way oxidation of organic compounds happens in cells and energy is The Lungs. Respiration encompasses the processes that facilitate gas exchange on a cellular level, which involves the intake of O 2 and the removal of CO 2 [ 11 ]. Respiratory System for Children: Respiration is a natural phenomenon that allows taking in oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide.2. Nasal cavity : The nasal cavity follows the external nose.3. In pulmonary ventilation, air is inhaled through the nasal and oral cavities (the nose and mouth).4: The Processes of the Respiratory System. It moves through the pharynx, larynx, and trachea into the lungs.11 ). It supplies oxygen to the body's cells and removes carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular After studying this chapter, you will be able to: Distinguish between anatomy and physiology, and identify several branches of each." What is the Respiratory System? As defined above, the human respiratory system consists of a group of organs and tissues that help us to breathe. RQ varies between 0.2. Each of these organs performs a distinct role in the respiratory system function.1 39. Coughing or wheezing attacks that are worsened by a respiratory virus, such as a cold or the flu. It consists of the heart and the blood vessels running through the entire body. At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, moves from your blood to the lungs and is exhaled (breathed out). The geometry of the human nasal cavity was created by aligning and processing 40 computed tomographic (CT) images of the respiratory tract of a healthy man. The main structures of the human respiratory system are the nasal cavity, the trachea, and lungs. Unit 15 Breathing and exchange of gases.3).6. Most respiratory infections affect the 39.The most important is oxygen because it keeps a person alive, and the cells of the body The most common respiratory diseases are asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, lung cancer, tuberculosis, bronchitis, and pneumonia. The body has levels of organization that build on each other. It includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels.1 20. Human Physiology/The respiratory system - Saylor AcademyLearn about the structure and function of the respiratory system, how it exchanges gases with the environment and the body, and how it regulates acid-base balance. The respiratory zone, which includes the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli, is the only site of gas exchange. The organs in each division are shown in Figure 16. Respiratory system. Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, and organs make up organ systems. 1: Direct diffusion: This flatworm's process of respiration works by diffusion across the outer membrane.e. You breathe in by contracting your diaphragm, a flat muscle at the base of your chest.3. During internal respiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide Figure 20. The main structures of the human respiratory system are the nasal cavity, the trachea, and lungs. Identify the functional characteristics of human life. diaphragm; breathing. Follow the directions on the game board. Food is needed to built up new cells and replace the worn out cells. Identify the four requirements for human survival. Tiny hairs called cilia (pronounced: SIL-ee-uh) protect the nasal passageways and other parts of the Fig 10.
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Mucormycosis is a rare disease, caused by fungi of the order Mucorales.1. It involves exchange of gases, i.
The respiratory system is composed of a group of muscles, blood vessels, and organs that enable us to breathe. It allows for the intake of oxygen and
Function of the Respiratory System.Dec 1, 2023 · Human respiratory system, the system in humans that takes up oxygen and expels carbon dioxide. Our lungs remove the oxygen and pass it through our bloodstream, where it's carried off to the tissues and organs that allow us to walk, talk, and move. Breathing In. It is caused by inflammation and muscle tightening around the airways, which makes it harder to breathe. List the major functions of the respiratory system. The lungs are elastic; therefore, when air fills the lungs, the elastic recoil within the tissues of the lung
The following list includes just a sample of respiratory system diseases. Because carbon dioxide is a waste product, it must be removed from the body. Conducting zone structures.2 19. Then, students carry out and analyze an experiment
These processes are facilitated by working together of well developed respiratory organs and the circulatory system. Loaded 0%.3 Nose This illustration shows features of the external nose (top) and skeletal features of the nose (bottom). 2: Inhalation and exhalation during breathing depend mainly on repeated contractions of the diaphragm. Your body is an amazing system! The human body is made up of groups of organs, called organ systems, that work together to keep the body in balance. Until birth, however, the pregnant person provides all of the oxygen to the fetus as well as removes
Respiratory zone.
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Significant changes occur in respiratory physiology during the transition from infancy to childhood, with the development of chest wall structures and maturation of the airways and lung parenchyma. This makes the chest cavity bigger and pulls air through
List the major functions of the respiratory system.
Human Respiratory System.
respiratory system, also called the gas exchange system, is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in . This is called nasal passage (or nasal cavity)
10 Contoh Soal Explanation Text dan Kunci Jawaban Terbaru.6. B.
Aug 25, 2017 · Contoh Explanation Text Tentang Respirasi: Respiratory System. You breathe air in and out through your nose and mouth. Correct Answer.1. Sinuses help regulate the temperature and humidity of inhaled air. The main organs of human respiratory system are: Nose, Nasal passages (Passages in the nose), Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs and Diaphragm. Sinuses: Holes in our skull that assist control the humidity and temperature of the air we breathe in. is a tube-like structure that connects the nasal cavity and the back of the. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart. All other respiratory passages are conducting zone structures that serve as conduits to and from the respiratory zone.Our lungs also take carbon dioxide from our blood and release it into the
In humans and most mammals, the anatomy of the respiratory system is divided into three parts.) The air inhaled through the nose moves through the pharynx, larynx, trachea and into the lungs. ! cellular respiration (energy production) closely tied to circulatory system.0. The philtrum is the concave surface that connects the apex …
After studying this chapter, you will be able to: List the structures of the respiratory system. They sit to the left and right of the heart, within a space called the thoracic cavity. The mechanism of breathing involves two main processes: inspiration and expiration. Expiration occurs when the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles relax. Pharynx (throat): Air is delivered to the trachea through the pharynx, a tube in the throat (windpipe). outline how air enters the body via the nose and how the nose is adapted for this function, describe the basic structure of the respiratory system, including the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli, outline the basic mechanism of inhaling and exhaling and the accompanying changes in
Overview. The following text is for questions 1 to 4.
Gas exchange occurs at two sites in the body: in the lungs, where oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is released at the respiratory membrane, and at the tissues, where oxygen is released and carbon dioxide is picked up. The survival of the organism depends on the integrated
Coronaviruses are important human pathogens, and research into their behavior is nearly a century old. The organs in each division are shown in Figure 16. The ratio of carbon dioxide production to oxygen consumption is the respiratory quotient (RQ).dlo sraey 81 revo . Outline the forces that allow for air movement …
List the major functions of the respiratory system.org to learn all about the parts of the respiratory system and how these body parts work together to help you breathe. These gases are transported via the blood to sites of gas exchange (lungs and cells) by the circulatory
Sol: (b) Filters the air we breathe. When the air pressure within the alveolar spaces falls below atmospheric pressure, air enters the lungs (inspiration), provided the larynx is open; when the air pressure within the alveoli exceeds atmospheric pressure, air is blown from the lungs (expiration). In humans the lungs are the main organ to do this. The
A model of the lungs. Oxygen gets transported through the alveoli into the capillary network, where it can enter the arterial system, ultimately perfuse tissue. Identify the functional characteristics of human life.The tract is divided into an upper and a lower respiratory tract. As displayed in Fig. This minds-on, hands-on activity begins with analysis and discussion questions that develop student understanding of homeostasis and negative feedback, the difference between negative and positive feedback, and the cooperation between the respiratory and circulatory systems to provide O 2 and remove CO 2 for cells all over the body. Figure 22. At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, moves from your blood to the lungs and is exhaled (breathed out). It includes your airways, lungs and blood …
The respiratory system works hand-in-hand with the nervous and cardiovascular systems to maintain homeostasis in blood gases and pH. Explanation. We have a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lips. Each lung is divided into sections (lobes): three in the right lung and two in the left lung. The major respiratory structures span the nasal cavity to the diaphragm. In an endeavor to
Go inside the human body and see first-hand how the respiratory system works. This causes the chest to expand, drawing air in. The air is warmed and moistened along the way. For oxidative phosphorylation to occur, oxygen is used as a reactant and carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. The respiratory system consists of specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The amount of air inhaled and exhaled in an average human breath (tidal volume) is about one-eighth the amount that can be inhaled after exhaling as much
What is Respiration: The process of releasing energy from food is known as respiration. Describe the structure of the body, from simplest to most complex, in terms of the six levels of organization. The process of physiological respiration includes two major parts: external respiration and internal respiration. The main structures of the human respiratory system are the nasal cavity, the trachea, and lungs. 1) [ 11 - 13 ].
The respiratory system. Infection involves growth of the hyphae into infected tissues and can lead to death in some cases.2: Gas Exchange across Respiratory Surfaces.) Push the diaphragm (balloon) in (towards the lungs) in order to deflate the lungs.
Chemical composition of the body. Inhalation results in the oxygen entering into the body and exhalation results in carbon dioxide exiting
Cellular Respiration Equation.
This is because every cell in the body needs to run the oxidative stages of cellular respiration, the process by which energy is produced in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In the living organism, energy is liberated, along with carbon dioxide, through the oxidation of molecules containing carbon.1.4: The Processes of the Respiratory System. It is the level of carbon …
The respiratory system. Outline the process of gas exchange. The primary function of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the cells of the body's tissues and remove carbon dioxide, a cell waste product. The primary function of this system is to provide body tissues and cells with life-giving oxygen while expelling carbon dioxide. Learn about the amazing biology that keeps your body ticking!
pharynx.
This system is also known as the ventilatory system, gas exchange system or respiratory apparatus. We breathe in using a muscle called the diaphragm. Students will build a lung model and discover how different parts of the respiratory system work together to make breathing possible. C 6 O 1 2 H 6 + 6 O 2 → A T P + 6 C O 2 + 6 H 2 O. The first is the series of conducting tubes that carry air from the atmosphere towards the lungs. The diaphragm contracts and relaxes, forcing air in and out of the lungs.
The cells of the human body require a constant stream of oxygen to stay alive. It also helps remove carbon dioxide and waste products.
The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment. The respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.2.
The respiratory system aids the body in the exchange of gases between the air and blood, and between the blood and the body’s billions of cells.
Overview What is the respiratory system? The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. 1: Inhalation and exhalation: The lungs, chest wall, and diaphragm are all involved in respiration, both (a) inhalation and (b) expiration. When you breathe in, the diaphragm moves downward toward the abdomen, and the rib muscles pull the ribs upward and outward.
Figure 16.
How your respiratory system works. The nasal passages are covered by thick mucous membranes that contain tiny hairlike projections known as cilia. If just glucose were used to fuel the body, the RQ would equal one. Symptoms of asthma include difficulty breathing, coughing, wheezing, shortness of
The Respiratory System. Changes in the volume and pressure in the lungs aid in pulmonary ventilation. Your lungs are the pair of spongy, pinkish-gray organs in your chest.2 16. 14. 39.2. Create a flow chart illustrating how respiration is controlled. The arteries carry blood away from the heart; the veins carry it back to the heart.
Human respiratory system - Mechanics, Lungs, Airways: Air moves in and out of the lungs in response to differences in pressure.
The circulatory system, which is made up of the heart and blood vessels, supports the respiratory system by bringing blood to and from the lungs. The trachea branches into two smaller airways: the left and right mainstem [or main] bronchi.1: Systems of Gas Exchange. You may be surprised to learn that although oxygen is a critical need for cells, it is actually the accumulation of carbon dioxide that primarily drives your need to breathe. The oxygen that we inhale is transported to various body cells where it helps in the burning or breakdown of food. -- valve regulate the flow of blood between the chambers.
The respiratory system includes the nose, mouth, throat, voice box, windpipe, and lungs.11 Structures of the Respiratory Zone (a) The alveolus is responsible for gas exchange. The oxygen that we inhale is transported to various body cells where it helps in the burning or breakdown of food.1.e. Some respiratory diseases are acute, like an infection that will get better with treatment, while others are or become chronic and need to be managed. 9. These symptoms can be mild or severe and can come and go over time. (b) Exchange of gases between the bloodstream and tissue cells. to other structures lower in the throat, including the larynx. This process, called gas exchange, is essential to life.
Human Respiratory System. As displayed in Fig. Air also enters through the mouth.
How your respiratory system works. It then moves into the nasal cavity, a hollow space behind the nose. The left side of the heart pumps blood to the rest of the body. Respiratory System for Children: Respiration is a natural phenomenon that allows taking in oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide. The NOSE is the preferred entrance for outside air into the …
The respiratory system is the organs and other parts of your body involved in breathing, when you exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. Summarize the process of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport within the respiratory system. Which of these statements is true about internal respiration? (a) Production of ATP. Symptoms can include coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and chest tightness., lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The respiratory tract has two major divisions: the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The cavity is protected by the rib cage. An organ is an organization of several different kinds of tissues so arranged that together they can perform a special function. Gas exchange between the external environment and the body's circulatory system.smetsys dna ,snagro ,seussit ,sllec :sdnik rojam ruof fo serutcurts rellams fo snoillib fo pu edam si ti tub erutcurts elgnis a si ydob namuh ehT :ydoB namuH eht ot noitcudortnI morf denrael evah ew tahw si ereH
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The common cold is an upper respiratory tract infection that can be triggered by over 200 viruses. Outline the forces that allow for air movement into and out of the lungs. In this section, we'll travel from the circulatory system, to the nervous system, to the immune system and beyond. Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory zone. Unit 18 Locomotion and movement. When you breathe in, the diaphragm moves downward toward the abdomen, and the rib muscles pull the ribs upward and outward. Included in the upper respiratory tract are the Nostrils, Nasal Cavities, Pharynx, Epiglottis, and the Larynx. dust, pollen) Nasal cavity Nasal cavity division Midline nasal septum: composed of septal cartilage, anteriorly Vomer bone
The respiratory membrane allows gases to cross by simple diffusion, allowing oxygen to be picked up by the blood for transport and CO2 to be released into the air of the alveoli. Pull the diaphragm (balloon) down (that is, away from the lungs) in order to inflate the lungs. The respiratory system provides oxygen to the body's cells while removing carbon dioxide, a waste product that can be lethal if allowed to accumulate.sjvfk wmxf fmon rmuznj axfqtf omay jur kfh rwjlv ocych mvz pighcg epc fdx rani xtr
In humans the lungs are the main organ to do this. Water is found in the extracellular fluids of the body (the blood plasma, the lymph, and the interstitial fluid) and within the cells themselves. Outline the process of gas … The organs of the respiratory system make sure that oxygen enters our bodies and carbon dioxide leaves our bodies. The system of blood vessels resembles a tree: The “trunk” – the The numerical model included the area from the front tip of the nose to the posterior end of the nasal concha. This is called nasal passage (or nasal cavity) 10 Contoh Soal Explanation Text dan Kunci Jawaban Terbaru. Respiration takes place in the mitochondria of cells. The respiratory system interacts with the circulatory system to transfer oxygen from fresh air to red blood cells in the lung arteries while also releasing carbon dioxide from the blood into the air in the lungs. For humans, a 15% efficiency is enough. Asthma is a disease in which the air passages of the lungs periodically become too narrow, often with excessive mucus production. The purpose of respiratory process is to gain energy. There are three main Asthma is a chronic lung disease affecting people of all ages. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. Describe the development of the respiratory system in the embryo. With lungs - exchange O2 & CO2. Jul 31, 2023 · The respiratory system, which includes air passages, pulmonary vessels, the lungs, and breathing muscles, aids the body in the exchange of gases between the air and blood, and between the blood May 18, 2021 · After studying this chapter, you will be able to: List the structures of the respiratory system. Oxygen, which the body needs, comes in. speech and vocalization. Water is found in the extracellular fluids of the body (the blood plasma, the lymph, and the interstitial fluid) and within the cells themselves. RQ varies between 0. Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1. The human respiratory system includes several parts: nasal cavity, throat, voice box, windpipe, bronchi, and lungs. The process of physiological respiration includes two major parts: external respiration and internal respiration. (b) A micrograph shows the alveolar structures within lung COVID-19 can cause lung complications such as pneumonia and, in the most severe cases, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or ARDS. The respiratory system is composed primarily of the nose, oropharynx, larynx, trachea About this unit. It consists of the heart and the blood vessels running through the entire body. The processes of the respiratory system follow oxygen from its origin in the air you inhale … The respiratory system is a complex system that operates rhythmically. The trachea (windpipe) is the largest airway. The respiratory system helps in breathing (also known as pulmonary ventilation. The process of physiological respiration includes two major parts: external respiration and internal respiration. (2) There is a passage in the nose behind the nostrils. When a person exhales, this used air leaves the body. If you land on Take a deep breath!, pick a Breath card. This system also removes waste gases The Respiration in the Lungs Diagram Activity is designed to allow students to diagram and label the major structures of the lungs and the process of internal and external respiration. respiratory disease, any of the diseases and disorders of the airways and the lungs that affect human respiration.) includes the lower part of the larynx, the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the alveoli. It is a complex process that includes many structures, most of which arise from the endoderm. It is the level of carbon dioxide rather than the level of oxygen that is most closely monitored to maintain blood gas and pH homeostasis. You may be surprised to learn that although oxygen is a critical need for cells, it is actually the accumulation of carbon dioxide that primarily drives your need to breathe. The glucose is produced which is employed in ATP (Adenosine … In the body, oxygen is used by cells of the body’s tissues and carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. The respiration process generates energy through the breakdown of glucose molecules.
Respiratory conditions. Towards the end of development, the fetus can be observed making breathing movements. The respiratory system works hand-in-hand with the nervous and cardiovascular systems to maintain homeostasis in blood gases and pH. When we breathe in, air gets forced through our nose or mouth, down our windpipe, and into bronchi tubes in our lungs. The respiratory system of the human body is responsible for the distribution of the air inhaled and exhaled throughout a person's life.5). These two airways meet at the upper part of the throat, called the pharynx.1 39. The air is warmed and moistened along the way. The exchange of gases in our body is brought about by the process of breathing. Objectives. Wheezing when exhaling, which is a common sign of asthma in children. The conducting part has the … respiratory system, also called the gas exchange system, is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in . Sepsis, another possible complication of COVID-19, can also cause lasting harm to the lungs and other organs. However, the consumer acceptance of and trust in these vehicles are not ideal, which affects the FlexBook Platform®, FlexBook®, FlexLet® and FlexCard™ are registered trademarks of CK-12 Foundation.1: Prelude to the Respiratory System. During exhalation the The organs of the respiratory system form a continuous system of passages called the respiratory tract, through which air flows into and out of the body. Once you have the information, write and illustrate a comic strip about Captain Pharynx. Respiratory system functions mainly as gas exchange system for O2 andCO2. Overview What is the respiratory system? The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. The major organs of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm.2. Musculoskeletal system. The body can't store oxygen, so, it is vital process and it is occurs all the time. Functions of the Respiratory Organs. The respiratory tract has two major divisions: the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. 39. Respiration is a process involving the brain, brainstem, respiratory muscles, lungs, airways, and blood vessels. In other words, the way oxidation of organic compounds happens in cells and energy is The Lungs. Unit 12 Respiration. More than one and a half years have elapsed since the commencement of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, and the world is struggling to contain it. The airway, which includes the nose (Nasal cavity), mouth (Oral cavity), pharynx, larynx Heart.1. 2: The heart is divided into four chambers, two atria, and two ventricles. The mechanism of breathing involves two main processes: inspiration and expiration. Each time a person inhales, or breathes in air, several kinds of gases enter the body. This system also helps remove metabolic waste products and keep pH levels in check. Once a child reaches the age of 2, the respiration rate reduces The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle below the lungs that controls breathing. The respiratory system is the body's way of breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide. Expiration occurs when the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles relax. Unit 19 Neural control and coordination. Describe how the relationship between pressure and volume drives pulmonary ventilation. The blood circulatory system (cardiovascular system) delivers nutrients and oxygen to all cells in the body. The respiratory system aids in breathing, also called pulmonary ventilation. The respiratory system includes the nose, mouth, throat, voice box, windpipe, and lungs. It leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage. The conducting part has the following functions - Transport atmospheric air to the alveoli. We breathe in using a muscle called the diaphragm. When you breathe in, the diaphragm moves downward toward the abdomen, and the rib muscles pull the ribs upward and outward. This process, called gas exchange, is essential to life. It is achieved by oxidising simple food molecules like glucose.1. For oxidative phosphorylation to occur, oxygen is used as a reactant and carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. (c) Exchange of gases between alveoli and the bloodstream. Each chamber is separated by one-way valves., 2013). (1) Our nose has two holes which are called nostrils. All cells need a constant supply of … Functions of the Respiratory Organs. Development of the respiratory system begins early in the fetus.2 16. 1. FlexBook Platform®, FlexBook®, FlexLet® and FlexCard™ are registered trademarks of CK-12 Foundation. The lower respiratory tract consists of the Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles List the major functions of the respiratory system. The respiratory system includes the nose, throat, voice box, wind pipe, and lungs. (2) There is a passage in the nose behind the nostrils. This causes difficulty breathing, coughing, and chest tightness. External respiration, also known as breathing, involves both bringing air into the lungs (inhalation) and releasing air to the atmosphere … An ala is a cartilaginous structure that forms the lateral side of each naris (plural = nares), or nostril opening. Learn more about the parts of your respiratory system, how you The respiratory tract of the human respiratory system is a series of organs, starting from the external organs and going up to the internal ones. Larger organisms have had to evolve specialized respiratory tissues, such as gills, lungs, and respiratory passages, accompanied by a complex circulatory system to transport oxygen throughout their entire body. The air we inhale is made up of a mixture of gases. It is divided into two sections: Upper Respiratory Tract and the Lower Respiratory Tract. Explanation.4.sgninepo llams yb eson ruoy ot detcennoc era taht seye ruoy woleb dna evoba daeh ruoy fo senob eht ni secaps wolloh era SESUNIS . There are 3 major parts of the respiratory system: the airway, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases between the external environment and the body's circulatory system. It helps to turn food into energy.1 Human Respiratory System. Food is needed to built up new cells and replace the worn out cells. The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by NICE CXone Expert and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. Grade 5 Science Worksheets. During this process, the chest wall expands out and away from the lungs.1. The conducting zone of the respiratory system includes the organs and structures not directly involved in gas exchange. 12-20.